Literature of the Elizabethan and Restoration Periods

Class Assignment 

Analyse the John Dryden's poem"Absalom and Achitophel"

Introduction 

Absalom and Achitophel is a celebrated satirical poem by John Dryden, written in heroic couplets and first published in 1681. The poem tells the Biblical tale of the rebellion of Absalom against King David; in this context it is an allegory used to represent a story contemporary to Dryden, concerning King Charles II and the Exclusion Crisis (1679  1681). The poem also references the Popish Plot (1678).

About the Author 

John Dryden (1631–1700) was a prominent English poet, playwright, and literary critic of the Restoration period. He served as England’s first official Poet Laureate and was a dominant literary figure of his time. Dryden is best known for his satirical works, such as Absalom and Achitophel, and for shaping English poetic style through heroic couplets. His influence marked the transition from Renaissance to Neoclassical literature.

Background 

John Dryden wrote Absalom and Achitophel as a  He was captured and executed for treason on July 15, even though he begged for mercy and promised to become Catholic. James II stayed king until 1688, when he was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution by William of Orange. Later, in 1701, a law was passed saying only Protestants could be king or queen of England.

Summary 

The poem begins by describing older “pious times,” when kings like David of Israel could have many wives and children without being judged. David, like Charles II of England, had both legitimate and illegitimate children. Dryden defends Charles by comparing him to David, saying that kings are chosen by God and reflect His image on earth. Among all of David’s illegitimate sons, Absalom is his favorite. He is handsome, brave, popular with the people, and loved by women. David even forgives him when he kills his half-brother Amnon, since Amnon had raped Absalom’s sister. This shows David’s merciful and forgiving nature.

David rules peacefully, but the Jews (like the English people) are restless and often rebel. Dryden compares them to the English who overthrew Charles I, lived under Oliver Cromwell, and then restored Charles II. Saul, Israel’s first king, is compared to Cromwell. Saul’s son Ishbosheth (like Richard Cromwell) could not keep power, so David (like Charles II) returned from exile to rule.Still, some Jews were never satisfied, wanting freedom to choose their king, and Dryden mocks them as “Adam-wits.”

The Jebusites in Israel represent Catholics in England. They were treated unfairly, overtaxed, and mocked for their religion. In Dryden’s time, Catholics faced the same discrimination. Tensions grew worse after the false “Popish Plot,” a supposed Catholic plan to kill Charles II. Though mostly lies, it stirred fear and led to the Exclusion Crisis, when many wanted to stop James II (Charles’s Catholic brother) from becoming king.

At this point, Achitophel enters. He is the cleverest but most dangerous enemy of David.Achitophel represents Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, leader of the Whigs.Ambitious, selfish, and dishonest, Achitophel pretends to be a patriot but only wants power. He whispers lies, spreads fear, and claims David is secretly a Jebusite. Knowing he cannot be king himself, he looks for a puppet and finds Absalom, who is popular and Protestant (like Monmouth).

Achitophel flatters Absalom, calling him “royal” and even a “second Moses.” He urges him to take the crown before it is too late, mocking the idea of divine right as outdated. Absalom hesitates, saying David is just and merciful, ruling by unquestioned right. David even gives Absalom everything except the crown, which is “destined for a worthier head”—his legitimate brother (James II). Absalom admits this, but ambition tempts him. He wishes he were born royal or too foolish to notice his limits, but Achitophel keeps pushing, calling David weak and urging him to act.

Achitophel then makes a plan: weaken David financially, stir unrest, and force him to sign a law cutting his brother out of the succession (the Exclusion Bill). If not, he tells Absalom, the people themselves should choose their king. Dryden rejects this, insisting kings are chosen by God, not by the people. Still, Achitophel keeps warning that David’s brother hates Absalom and will crush him later. Better to rebel now.

Soon, many join Achitophel and Absalom. The crowd, called the “Solymæan rout,” includes Puritan preachers (Levites) who want religious rule again. Among Achitophel’s men are Zimri(the foolish, changeable man, representing the Duke of Buckingham), Balaam, Caleb, and Nadab(minor rebels), Jonas (a cunning lawyer), and above all Shimei, a corrupt magistrate who cheats the people and curses David (Slingsby Bethel). Another is Corah, representing Titus Oates, the liar who invented the Popish Plot. Corah’s powerful speeches and false claims make many believe him.

Together they stir up rebellion. Absalom charms the people with sweet words and even tears,pretending to share their grief. He warns about foreign enemies (Egypt = France, Tyrus =Holland) and the Jebusites (Catholics). He cries in front of them, which makes the people see him as a messiah. Soon, he rides in procession with Achitophel, greeted everywhere like a savior.Secretly, however, they are plotting against David.

Dryden interrupts to scold the people, calling them foolish for believing lies and betraying their king. He warns that if a king can be removed so easily, then no ruler is safe and society itself will collapse. But David is not alone—he still has loyal supporters. These include Barzillai (James Butler, Duke of Ormond), old and faithful; Zadok the priest (Archbishop Sancroft); Amiel(Edward Seymour, Speaker of the Commons); Adriel, Jotham, Hushai, and others. They mourn the rebellion and tell David about Absalom’s ambition and Achitophel’s plot.

Finally, David himself speaks. He admits he has been too merciful out of love for Absalom, but now he must act as king, not father. Kings, he says, are the foundation of society, and to rebel is to destroy order. He warns Absalom and the rebels that if they continue, they will fall like Samson under the ruins. Still, he offers forgiveness if Absalom repents. If God had wanted him king, He would have made him king. David calls him not a patriot but a fool, misled by Achitophel.

In the end, David grows fierce, warning that if the rebels want terror, they will face destruction.Thunder shakes Israel, showing God’s support for him. The people realize their mistake, and David is once again seen as their rightful, godlike king. Through this ending, Dryden defends Charles II and the divine right of kings, while condemning Shaftesbury, Monmouth, and theExclusion Crisis.

Conclusion 

Absalom and Achitophel concludes with a strong defense of monarchy and a warning against rebellion driven by personal ambition. Dryden uses satire and biblical allegory to criticize political conspiracies. Ultimately, the poem upholds order and loyalty as essential to national stability.

Home Assignment 

What is Metaphysical Poetry?

Introduction 

Metaphysical poetry is a special type of poetry that became popular in the 17th century. The main poets of this group were John Donne, George Herbert, Andrew Marvell, Henry Vaughan,and Richard Crashaw. The word metaphysical means “beyond the physical.” These poets were not satisfied with writing only about beauty, nature, or simple love. Instead, they wanted to explore deeper ideas such as the meaning of love, the relationship between man and God, the nature of the soul, and the mystery of death and life after death. The term metaphysical poets was first given by Samuel Johnson, who noticed that these poets used unusual comparisons and very clever arguments in their poems.

Characteristics of Metaphysical Poetry

1. Use of Conceits (Unusual Comparisons):

A conceit is an extended and surprising comparison between two very different things.

Metaphysical poets often used such images to explain their ideas. For example, in Donne’s poem A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning, he compares two lovers to the two legs of a compass. At first this seems strange, but it beautifully explains how two people can be apart yet remain connected.

2. Blend of Emotion and Thought:

These poems are full of passion, but the poets also bring in reasoning and arguments. They do not only write with feelings but also with the mind. For example, Donne’s poems of love are not only romantic but also full of clever logic and philosophy.

3. Philosophical and Religious Themes:

Many metaphysical poems are about God, spirituality, the soul, and life after death. John Donne’s Holy Sonnets deal with sin, death, and salvation. George Herbert’s poems show his deep devotion to God.

4. Paradox and Wit:

A paradox is a statement that looks false or impossible but actually contains a hidden truth. The poets used such ideas to shock and impress the readers. For example, Donne’s line “Death, thou shalt die” sounds impossible but means that death has no real power.

5. Abrupt and Dramatic Opening:

Unlike other poets who began slowly and smoothly, metaphysical poets often started their poems suddenly, as if jumping into the middle of a conversation. This immediately catches attention.For example, Donne opens The Sun Rising with: “Busy old fool, unruly Sun…”

6. Simple and Conversational Language:

They did not always use flowery or decorative words. Instead, their style was closer to everyday speech, making the poems sound direct and powerful.

7. Images from Science and Daily Life:

Another special quality is that they used examples from science, law, medicine, geography, and everyday objects to explain their feelings. This shows their wide knowledge and makes their poetry intellectual.

Metaphysical poets

1.John Donne

2.George Herbert

3.Andrew Marvell

4.Henry Vaughan

5.Richard Crashaw

Conclusion 

Metaphysical poetry is known for its wit, intelligence, and originality. It combines deep emotions with clever arguments. These poets go beyond the surface level of love and beauty to explore serious questions about life, death, faith, and the soul. Their poetry is full of surprises, unusual comparisons, and thought-provoking ideas, which makes it very different from the smooth and musical poetry of earlier times.

Essay 

Write a detailed note on the poem"The Ecstasy"by John Donne.

Introduction 

John Donne’s The Ecstasy explores the deep spiritual connection between two lovers, where their souls communicate silently, transcending physical desire. The poem argues that true love lies in the union of souls, not just bodies. However, Donne also suggests that the physical body is necessary to express and fulfill this spiritual bond.

About the Author 

John Donne (1572–1631) is remembered as the greatest of the Metaphysical poets. His works display a unique mixture of intellectual wit, passionate emotion, and religious devotion. Donne’s style is marked by the use of metaphysical conceits, where two unlike things are compared in an elaborate and surprising way, such as comparing lovers to a compass or to a flea. His poetry often deals with themes of love, death, immortality, and spiritual faith. In his early career, Donne wrote sensual and witty love poetry, but later, after becoming Dean of St. Paul’s Cathedral, he turned towards devotional and meditative verse. His works continue to influence English literature for their depth, complexity, and originality.

Analysis 

The poem begins with two lovers sitting quietly on a riverbank, holding hands and gazing into each other’s eyes. Their bodies are still, but their souls are fully engaged, feeling a strong connection. Donne describes how their love is not just physical but also mental and spiritual,emphasizing the unity of their minds and souls.

In these stanzas, Donne imagines the lovers’ souls leaving their bodies and meeting in the space between them. The souls float above the physical world, examining and admiring each other.This spiritual meeting represents the higher, intellectual, and eternal aspect of love, showing thattrue love connects both the body and the soul.

The lovers’ bodies remain still, almost like statues, while their souls are active and engaged. If an observer were to see them, they would notice the silent, perfect connection between their souls.Donne uses this image to suggest that the spiritual dimension of love is more important than the physical, yet it works through the body as its vessel.

The united souls communicate silently. Donne explains that love is not only about physical pleasure; it is also the union of minds and spirits. Each soul complements the other, creating a stronger, more complete love. Just like a plant grows better when nurtured, two souls grow stronger when they meet and understand each other.

Donne stresses that the body cannot be ignored. The physical body allows the souls to meet, communicate, and express love. The body is necessary to make spiritual love visible and tangible.

The final stanzas emphasize that complete love involves both the body and the soul. Spiritual connection alone is not enough; love must also be expressed physically. Only when body and soul work together can love be perfect, lasting, and fulfilling.

Conclusion 

In The Ecstasy, John Donne concludes that true love transcends physical desire, uniting souls in a deep spiritual bond. He emphasizes that while the body plays a role, it is the soul's connection that defines and sustains genuine love.